HISTORY OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION

HISTORY OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION RECAP:

LESSON 1:

16th Century (1550) - first 2 players (Spain & Portugal)
Spain - Latin America
Portugal - African, East & South Asian coast
17th Century (1650) - France, Britain & Netherlands join. Russian conquest of Siberia.
Spain - Latin America
Portugal - African, East & South Asian coast
France - North America, West African coast
Britain & Netherlands - scattered territories
Russia - Siberia
18th Century (1754) - further territory aquisition by previous countries
19th Century (1822)
South America independant (Spain & Portugal gone)
British - Canada & Australia, most of South Asia, a lot of India
Russia - further territory aquisitions
19th Century (1885)
USA, only African coast colonized. Beginning of African conquest.
20th Century (1914)
Europe - Most of Africa colonized
20TH Century (1938)
Africa - many colonies gain independence
20th Century (1960-74)
Major decolonization

Not Colonized by Europe: Thailand (Brit/French buffer state); Ethiopia (Deafeated Italy); Japan (becomes imperialst itself, has enlightenment); Korean Peninsula; Iran/Persia (Russian/Brit buffer) - partitioned into spheres of influence, but independant; major parts of China; Ottoman Empire (colonizer); Liberia (established by former US slaves); Arabian Peninsula (Europe didn’t want to interfere with the holy cities), Afghanistan (2 19th Century wars - won by Britian, yet colonization was failed)

The three elements of a colony:

invasion (war / settlement)
remote mother country (colonizer)
exclusive rights of possession

LESSON 2 + 3:

Different explorers:

Ibn Battuta (14th Century) From Morocco to Beijing.
Ma Huan (early 15th Century) Chinese explorer.
Marco Polo (13th Century), mere travel, no settlement
! The travels of Arab and Chinese explorers did not include any permanent settlements, unlike those of European explorers !

WRITERS: POMERANZ (great divergence), Darwin (Asia/Europe similarities), Abernathy (5 colonialism stages), Hopkins (4 stages), Diamond (Euroasian diversity), Andrade (technology isn’t only factor for colonization), Hobson (imperialism = market expansion), Lenin (imperialism, the highest state of capitalism), Weber (active & rational spirit), Kipling (literature, white superiority), Schumpeter (imperialism as irrational), Porter (absent minded imperialism), Wilson (chaos leads imperialism), Said (orientalism), Spivak (subalternity), Bhabha (fluidity of colonizer/colonized), Quijano (modernity & colonialism, colonial matrix), Mignolo (colonialism vs coloniality), Lugones (intersectionality),

Kenneth Pomeranz: Great Divergence, China and West on similar track until Industrial revolution
John Darwin: similarities in China/Europe until 18th Century
David Abernathy: 5 phases of European Colonization; 3 spheres of growth: Religious, Political, Private

Expansion (1415 - 1773) begins with Portugal on the African coast, ends with regulating act in British NA
First decolonization (1775 - 1824) battle of Bunker Hill (first British defeat in USA), giant wave of former colony independence
Second colonization (1824 - 1912) begins with Anglo-Burman war (Miyanmar) & ends with Italian conquest of Libiya
Consolidation (period between two World Wars)
Second decolonization (1940-1980, but still ongoing) independence of African and Asian territories

Anthony Hopkins: 4 stages (archaic globalized networks (pre 15th century); proto-globalization (15th-19th century); high imperialism; post-colonialism)
Jared Diamond: Euroasian geography, biology, etc. was simply special and allowed for colonialism
Tonio Andrade: China already had gunpowder, we cannot reduce EU superiority to technology
John Hobson: imperialism is the West expanding its markets
Lenin: imperialism is the partitioning of capital and monopolies…
Max Weber: Europe has an ‘active’ & ‘rational’ spirit → legal state, science, and eventually colonialism
Rudyard Kipling: Jungle book, white superiority, Indian inferiority
Joseph Schumpeter: Colonialism was irrational, lead to no benefits, just repetition of past societies
Bernard Porter: absent-minded british imperialism, wasn’t even fully conscious
Jon E. Wilson: chaos and irrationality lead imperialism
Niall Furguson: 6 fields in which Europe changed the world (competition, science, property, medicine, consumption, work)
Utsa Patnaik: Britian drained trillions from India
Edward Said: orientalism, outdated academic movement, fascination with the East
Gayatri Spivak: subalternity
Homi K. Bhabha: colonizer and colonized were fluid identities.
Anibal Quijano: modernity & coloniality go hand in hand; the colonial matrix dominates ALL power relations
Walter Mignolo: colonialism is a specific time period, people names…; coloniality is a logical structure of domination
Maria Lugones: gender & coloniality, intersectionality

Seemingly most important: DARWIN, ABERNATHY, SPIVAK, KIPLING, PATNAIK, SAID,

16th Century - Portugese
17th Century - Spanish
18th Century - Dutch
19th Century - British

Early colonial technology: printing press, better ships, eyeglasses, clocks, gunpowder
Industrial Revolution: medicine, science, maxim gun, steamships

Economics and Industrial Revolution primitive accumulation lead to colonialism through the need for resources.

Competition between the European metropoles (first Spain-Portugal)(then Spain-Netherlands)(then Netherlands-England)
16th - Spain vs Portugal
17th - the Dutch vs Spain, then the Dutch vs England
18th - Britian vs France
late 19th, early 20th - scramble of Africa: Germany, Italy, Belgium enter the game
Europe relied on older, non-European trade networks. Chola empire (South India) laid foundational trade networks. East Asian economies were also very strong (Pomeranz, Darwin), and analagous to Europe.
-Further non-European catalysts for colonization: India as a magnet of trade; Ottoman expansion requiering new routes; New World enabling further expansion; reliance on technology by non-European nations (gunpowder - China, etc.)
Border age - 18th Centry for Europe, 19th for Asia, Americas, 20th for Africa.
The economies of many past colonized nations are still dominated by the modes of production established by thier colonizers.
In Haiti: Creole language created by mixing in French.

LESSON 4 + 5

!!! PORTUGAL !!!
(during 15th Century Portugal establish new settlements and colonies in search of a route to India)
!!! 1415: Ceuta (first European colonization?)
(Ceuta - Maderia - Azores - Cape Bojador - Cape Verde - Serra Lyoa)
! 1483: Congo River (Diogo Cao)
! 1487: Cape of Good Hope (Southmost tip of Africa - hope of circumventing Africa and reaching India)

They did it hoping to find gold, hope to find lost Christians, fianlly unite Christianity, defeat the Muslims
! 1498: Calicut (Vasco da Gama); India finally reached
! 1510: Goa, West Indian coast: Establishment of Indian State.
Goa becomes the empire of the Portugese Indian colonial state, existing as trade posts, fortifications, etc on the Indian coast.
! 1492: America is reached by Columbus
! 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas: Pope solves Spanish-Portugese confict by proposing two even spheres of influence: one Spanish, one Portugese (Similar to 1885 - Berlin)

! 1500 Alvares (Portugese) reaches Brazil.

first step in American colonization
trade & plantations (coffee, sugar, etc.)
movement inland gradually for slaves and gems
immigration of European and African slaves
(1750 - Treaty of Madrid, correction of Tordesillas Treaties, redivides Brazil)

! Collapse of Portugese empire

1578: Portugese defeated in Morocco
1580-1640: Spanish king occupies Portugal. Portugese interests not defended or cared about.
Major loss of territories by Dutch and English
Portuglas loses Malacca (Malaysia) and Ceylon (Shri Lanka) - both major hubs
Some territories remain: Macau (China), Goa (India), East Timor (Indonesia), but the decline was obvious
19th Century: Porugese loose Brazil in first wave of decolonization
participate in scramble for Africa (first to reach Congo river), taking Angola and Mozambique

HOWEVER, all money used for warfare. Defending protestantism against catholicism (Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands)

At first victorious, but soon begins loosing
Spain loses power towards the end of the 16th, Beginning of the 17th Century
1713: Loss of posessions in Italy and Low Countries

! Demographic impact of Spanish Empire [one of the most important parts of the course]!

gigantic impact of european colonizalism
! Colombian exchange: exchange of flaura and fauna between the old and the new world. Agricultures (see graph), fruits, grains, livestock, metals, and very importantly: diseases!
Smallpox killed millions of people:

In Hispaniola, in 1500 3-4 millions, by 1520 it was merely 15,000, by 1570 it was 0.
In mainland America only a 1/10th of the original population remained

this is one of the greatest attrocities of human history.
the emptiying of the Americas lead to waves of whtie settlers.
From Spain: 240,000 in 16th Century, 500,000 in 17th.
Import of 11 million African slaves. 5 mil by Portugal, 2 mil by Spain, 1 mil by France, 3 mil by Britian, and less than a mil by Holland, the US, Denmark. Done over the course of 54K voyages
most of these slaves were important to Brazil, then the British colonies, etc.
what follows is a variety of racial and ethnic/cultural mixtures
[this was pioneered by the Spanish, but the other empires followed suit]

!!! THE NETHERLANDS !!!
Dutch Republic:

80 years war, Spain and Netherlands are at war, in Europe and the colonies as well.
- originally smaller companies, by 1602 conglomorated into the United East-Indian Company. 1621: West Indian Company

Originally the Dutch searched for a route to the East Indies via Russia/North-East (Novaya Zembla from Pale Fire) - failed, too much ice
! Then they tried Northwest [! Henry Hudson !] - sailed up to modern New York! Hudson river! New Amsterdam!

! Manhattan purchase 1626 [New Amsterdam established] - ! conquered by England 1664 [renaimed new city to New York]

! 1605 (beginning of Dutch 17th Century) - the dutch reach spice islands / East Indies (Indonesia)

East Indies were a golden egg of spices.
Cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, pepper…

!!! The Dutch were more TRADERS, than settlers or exploiters. They only become conquerers in Indonesia in the 19th Century.

VOC:
! What matters is that during the 17th Century the Dutch expand into India, Indonesia, etc. Open up spice trades, etc., etc.

reach Japan (like Portugese) - Japan soon bans all Europeans, except the Dutch, under VERY strict conditions
The Dutch establish a resupply point in the Cape Colony / South Africa (1650). Farmers settle there to grow food for trade ships.

The WIC (West India Trading company)

established to compete with Spain in the Caribbean
at first done via piracy (plundering ships with silvers on board). Basically state terrorism in the context of a war.
direct warfare with Spain and Portugal (Porugal was spanish)
direct warfare with England (loss of New Amsterdam)

!!! ENGLAND / BRITISH EMPIRE !!!

competition (17th Dutch, 18th France, 19th Russia)
British sent entire families, or prisoners (penal colonies). SETTLER COLONIALISM
Canada, British NA, Australia, New Zeland: all major settler colonies, all British.
! Gradual conquest of Spanish colonies in Carribean (mid to late 17th Century)
major profits from sugar plantations in Jamaica (1773 / 18th Century). Jamaica is FIVE TIMES more profitable than NA (so, no catastrophic economic losses from NA loss)
! by mid-18th century (1750) BNA consists of 13 british colonies
alongside BNA theres also colonies in Canada, Jamaica, Caribbean islands, Honduras, etc.
Some sucess in India
Failures in East Indies (Indonesia)
! All over 17th Century theres minor British Victories. During the 19th Century these become the capitals of British activities in the region. At first scattered. Become important overtime.
British civil war, Cromwell becomes British lord protector (not king), he is important for the expansion of the British fleet
Reasons for Anglo-Dutch wars (17th):

Cromwell restricts Dutch: only Brit ships can trade with Brit colonies.
New Amsterdam / New York dispute
Suriname land disputes

Holy Revolution (17th) (Catholics vs Protestants)
! English unite, via a dynastic union (marriage) solve Dutch-Anglo dispute. They begin collaborating.
English stock exchange, further expertiese gained.
! This leads to British superiority in the 18th Century (after the 17th Dutch Century)

!!! FRANCE !!!

Also world leader. Dominates European continent. Giant territory, giant population. France was more interested in the european continent, yet nevertheless noticed the profits made by other nations via their colonies, and so it too participated, despite never being a colonial leader.
Didnt invest as many funds, or as much time
French colonies were usually large, but quite undeveloped
Caribbean: Guadeloupe, Martinique (mid 17th) Haiti (late 17th)
Louisiana (late 17th Century). The French only claimed the space, did not establish plantations

French were present in Canada due to exploration

LESSON 6

CHAPTER 3: 70 YEARS WAR (1744 - 1815)

So many wars between Spain, Britian and France - conglomorated under a single name
decades not hyper important
late 17th to mid 18th century
fought inland and in colonies

!! 70 Years War (mic 18th to early 19th Century):

Seven Years War (1756-1763): EU, India, America
US Independance War (1775-83):
Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815): Brit expansion, decolonization of Lat. America
settler colonies (Canada, Australia, New Zeland, 19th & 20th century settler colonies) - they came into being via the 70 years war

SEVEN YEARS WAR (eclipsed by other wars, yet important - can be called the first actual World War):

France, Austria, Russia VS Britian (navy) & Prussia (land force)
900K / 1.4M deaths
change in balance of powers, rise of Britian

India: Britian conquers huge Indian territories (no longer mere coastal territories, Britian is now inland)

Brits are the STRONGEST european power in India
India is ruled by MOGHULS. Their emperors consider themselves superior to Europeans (dynasty of the Taj Mahal). They almost unite all of the sub-continent.
for the Moguls the Europeans are mere trade partners
Basically, internal conflict within the East/India opened up a power vacuum for Britian to expand.

America (mid 18th): conflicts between French & British colonies

Britian decides to defeat france at their weakest
Brits: Louisbourg, Quebec, Montreal
! EVERYTHING east of the Mississipi becomes British. West of it is Spain (compensation for Spanish loss of Mississipi)
! Louisiana and Florida gained by France in 1800
! 1803: Napoleon sells Louisiana to the US (he did not care abt the land)
Essentialy: France looses its position in NA

! London wins 7 years war. Britian wants to raise taxes, which the colonies are firmly against (no taxation without representation).

early US revolution (Boston Tea Party, Bunker Hill battle…)
! 1776: US declares independance
!!! 1783 Brits withdraw, BNA becomes USA.

!!! 7 Years war, essentialy: Indian power vacuum lets Britian conquer Inland. Britian gains many territories in America, France is pushed out of America. The BNA colonies dislike Britian’s treatment of them. BNA declares independance, becomes USA.

NAPOLEONIC WARS (1798-1815 / late 19TH, EARLY 20TH):

Napoleon travels to Egypt, originally victorious against local rulers in battle of the Pyramids (late 18th)
Brits are alarmed by this victory, do not want French presence there.
Brits defeat French in the battle of the Nile (same year)
French have an expedition (Gaza), but eventually retrieve
we see the main tendency of the French: focus on the continent, not focus on the colonies
British conquests: Trinidad, Cape Colony (South Africa, resupply point), Ceylon (Sri Lanka, spice island)
! basically: from 1767 to 1819 Brits take over almost all of india
Why Britian suceeded: Indian discord, British technological and military superiority (industrial revolution) + british tactic of divide and conquer
over late 18th & early 19th Britian colonizes almost all of India
! first is HAITI (slave insurrection) (French, 1804) - very lucrative colony, strongly punished for its slave revolt. France was ruthless, horrifyingly overworking and overusing its slaves.
[Haiti is the one and only sucessful french insurrection]
Santo Domingo: Rich, affluent, does well, appears western
Haiti: MUCH poorer, worse - why?

Debts to France after 1825 (compensation for plantations lost), 50-80% of Haiti’s budget is drained by France. France continues exploiting Haiti.
US mingling (Papa Doc & Baby Doc - served US interests only)
International mingling: Haiti recieves support only after acceptance of horrible Neoliberal reforms, well-liked leader is left unable to act to better his people

Haitian fought alongside Americans, returned home with ideas of revolution and optimism
US supports 1790s Haiti insurrection
Haiti gives refuge to Bolivar (twice) after defeats
Carribean nations stay colonies because of the effects of Haiti

LESSON 7 + 8:

! Decolonization of Latin America:

during Napoleonic era most colonies become independant
Spanish colonies (weaker spain, inspired by nationalist movements, napoleonic freedom)
last colony is Portugese Brazil
Latin America is freeded from the periphery (Grenada via Simon Bolivar, 1810s, early 19th)
Then movement towards center
1819: Republic of Great-Columbia
1830: Great Colombia disintegrates into Colombia, Venezula, Ecuador

Periphery of SA

New Grenada: Simon Bolivar
La Plata: San Martin
inspired by ideas of liberty from French revolution

Center

Lima: San Martin & Bolivar
New Spain
1810: Buenos Aires provisional government, independence of Argentina
1817: San Martin conqueres Argentina
1821: Martin conquers Lima
1822: meeting with Bolivar behind closed doors
! San Martin (1821-22) & Bolivar (1824-27) become presidents of Peru
1825: Republic of Bolivia (Bolivar - first prez, named after him)
! Spanish colonies in SA independent.

New Spain:

1810-15 Mexico: pro-Napoleon insurrection crushed by loyalists, plantation owners and upper classmen
1821: new Spanish constitution, too liberal, disliked by elite that crushed first insurrection, independant New Spain (conservative revolution leads to Mexico independence)
1822-40) Federal republic of Central America, disintegrates into a variety of smaller states (Guatemala, etc.)

Brazil (Portugese territory) (interesting case):

after Napoleonic invasion of Portugal the king of Portugal flees to Brazil
! 1822: Brazilian independence, under the king’s son - Emperor Pedro
this was all peacful, unlike other empires

WHITE SETTLER COLONIES:

US nationalists tried to include Canada in their revolution. They failed.
The French pop. in Canada thought they were better with Britian (britian had respected their religious and linguistic autonomy)
! US invades Canada (1812-15), America loses and Canada stays British
1837 rebellion in Canada (BNA): Canadians want more representation (similar to US).
Britian acts smarter, doesnt send troops
! Solution to rebellion: Union of Canada (no longer British/French); more british migration, still respectful of the French. More powerful Legislative Assembly in Canada.
1848: Responsible governance (new idea): government is responsible to parlament, not monarch. Canadians can rule their own
Dominion of Canada. Comlete union (1840) was ineffective. 1867: Canda in split into 4 provinces. No longer multiple colonies - Canda is now one single colony, divided into 4 provines.
! Dominion: colony with way more autonomy (still British, but has self-determination). This is very important for what Canda is.
(this idea of responsible governance is awarded only to white settler colonies - Canada, NZ, Australia)

Exploration of the Pacific:

! 18th Century: Easter Islands, Asia-America connection (Bering), Falklands, Tahiti, firs circumnavigation of the globe, circumnavigation of Australia…
! All of these eclipsed by James Cook: mapping NZ, claims Botany Bay/Sydney for Britian, crossed antartic circle (almost reached Antarctica), Hawaii, California, Alaska

Australia: a penal colony.
1787: first ships to Sydney with prisoners.

most were liberated, but few returned home.
1868: final convict transporation. 80 years of penal colony
through this process Australia becomes a white settler colony, very different from BNA.
South-East Australia is the first point of colonization
over time Cambera is chosen as capital, 1908 Australia is unified.

NZ (mid to late 19th Century):

more warfare, Maori people more resistant than Aboriginals
New Zeland company (mid 19th Century) promotes settlement and economic growth

Migration:

1500-1783: 1.4mil to new world
1815-1914: 22.6mil left British Isles (62% to US, mainly Irish)
1918 onwards: white Aussie policy (1901-1949/73); 1922 Canada attracts migrants, 1924: US migration quotas

-1949/53: Britian forms Commonwealth of past-colonies (now 56 states)

Interconnectivity of Commonwealth:

! progressive political culture: responsible government, dominions, secret ballot, democratization, femmale suffrage, universal male suffrage
! in general: common history, common identity
across mid 20th Century: collapse of imperial citizenship (commonwealth citizens, considered british citizens)

BRITISH INDIA:

1857: Britian expands EVEN further into India, gather more and more coast
competition with Russia (other Napoleonic war victor)
all over 19th Century Russia and Britian fight a sort of cold war as the two most powerful European empires
Brits saw a Russian threat of expansion (in Central Asia)
! Russia could have expanded South, gotten Central Asian territory. This would put British India at risk, at which point the Russians could have attacked British India
! Arthur Conolly - ‘Great Game’ presents this opposition between the two victors of Napoleon about control over Asia
contrast between ideologies. Russia - autocracy, militarism, serfdom. UK - democracy, freedom, modernity. Britian sees Russia as its antipode
fear of UK’s negation winning, British Empire, but also British ideals, dying out/being replaced.
[this is most of the ‘Great Game’ context]
1839: Brits attack Afghanistan. Central Asian bridge, motivated by fear of Russian expansion.
initial Brit sucess in conquest, failure in retainment of territory.
1842: Brits retreat
1840s, First and Second Punjab War.
Punjab immediately integrated into British India.
By 1857 - Brits have conquered almost all of India/Pakistan.
! 1857-58: Great Mutiny or First War of Indian Independence:
began as mutiny of soldiers, later turned into an insurrection of Indian locals. For Indians this is a war of Independence.
The Great Mutiny: a complex patchwork of ideologies, cruel with many atrocities
1858: Brits in the end win. The mutiny fails.
! 1858: Indian rule changes. Before 1858 the East India company (backed by government) was the ruler. Afterwards it becomes consolodated under the Crown.
after this the Brit expansion into India falters

British Imperialism revived in the 1870s.

1876: Balochistan (you know where this is)
1877: East Turkestan to China (Xinjiang, Ughyur muslims, North-West China), done by both Brits and Russians, out of fear of the other controlling it
1878-80: Second British Deafeat in Afghanistan
Tibet: then independant, ruled by Dalai Lama.
1895: Dalai Lama starts pro-Russian policy
1904: British expedition into Tibet, conquering Lhasa (capital)
British treaty between Tibet and Britian for free trade and borders (Chinese do not recognize this)
This is a reason for Chinese-Indian border conflicts over contested regions
1906: China recognized as soverign of Tibet (same as Turkestan)
around this time Chinese Empire was collapsing
1911: Tibet becomes independant
1950: re-conquest by Mao, becomes Chinese again
Tibet is still Chinese today, Western movement for pro-free Tibet
by 1913 Central Asia is very different, controlled by Russia/Britian.
Stan countries: Russian; Tibet: Chinese; Britian: further expansion, failure of Afghan invasion

How did the ‘Great Game’ end?

rise of Germany
Brits stop focusing on Russia. Now they’re focused on Germany.
1907: Treaty between Brits and Russians and French.
! Creation of Triple Entente
! This Triple Entente are the powers fighting Germany & Austria in WW1
Persia: final country that Brits and Russian claim.
1907 (part of treaty): Divided in Russian and Brit part. The middle is neutral, with Belgians used as neutralists.
(Belgian colonial history is more than just Congo)

!!! South-East Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, etc.)

Indonesia: Dutch colony. Colonized slowly by the Dutch, with many parts remaining independant even in 1862.
1780-84: 4th Anglo-Dutch war, the Brits win
End of South East Asia Dutch monopoly
! 1800: Dutch take over VOC property
1806-14: Dutch become French puppet state (Napoleon’s brother is on the throne)
1811-1815: Dutch East Indies occupied by Britian (ruled by Thomas Raffles)
! Brits take over Malaysian Peninsula (major traffic/trade control). This is of key importance
Java war (1825-30) (central Dutch island): local king resists, warfare, eventual local loss, Dutch annexation of the island & capital
Aceh (1873-1908) (North-Western Sumatra): general killed, war begins, antropology, mutinies, destruction of local economy, mass murder, etc. Eventual ‘peace’
[! 19th is full of great colonial wars, many forgotten by the colonizers]
! The Netherladns did not participate in the scramble for Africa, due to this expansion into the Indies

!!! French Indochina (1850s, 60s and especially 70s onward)

by 1905: heavy expansion

Siam (modern Thailand)

remains independant. To stay independant many territories are relinquished.
indirect colonialism, via trade

LESSON 9:

!!! CHINA

early modern age: among most powerful countries
Portugese first (Macau, 16th), Dutch second (17th)
Qing dynasty, final chinese dynasty. powerful in 17th
this dynasty recudes trade with Europe (18th, 19th), centering it only to Canton/Guangdong
! China begins declining in 19th Century: Industrial Revolution
White Lotus rebelion (dynasty’s prestige is stained)
! opium trade (18th, especially 19th): British India grows opium, is exported to Chinese market
March 1839 - a ship with opium is destroyed in Canton
Brits want to punish the Chinese, first opium war
! 1839-1842: first opium war. Brits conquer Canton, reach as far as Shenghai
! 1842: treaty of Nanjing. Opium trade continues, Brits recieve Hong Kong, Brits demand the opening of 5 ports for Britian

extraterritoriality: Europeans now control some territories, bring in European judges, etc.

This whole British system is labeled ‘unequal treaties’
1844: France & US follow China, treaty ports emerge
treaty ports persist into even the 20th Century
Tianjin: patchwork of consessions to a wide variety of European nations & Japan
! Second Opium War (1856-60) - chinese resistance, after 10-15 years a new act of protest
in Canton: chinese authorithies arrest chinese memebers of a ship’s crew
used as a pretext for new opium war by Brits & French
Taijing is conquered (close to Beijing)
! 1860: French and Brits embark of penal expedition to punish Chinese for kicking out Western diplomants, depose emperor, destroy summer palace
clear victory for europeans of second opium war
new emperor takes throne
1860: after 2nd opium war stagnation takes place, collaboration between europeans and chinese (authorithies realize theres no other option)
! Taiping rebellion: violent, 20-30 million victims. Chinese emperor couldn’t handle, recieves aid from brits & french, so the Ching dynasty becomes a puppet to the west.
Chinese emperor owes his rule to the Europeans helping him crush the rebellion
modernization of chinese society: western edu. system, factories, industrialization.
growing Western presence in China in 1860s
1870s onwards: new tensions. London doesn’t modify treaty, anti-christian movement, concerns about EU colonization of past Chinese states (Indochina)
1860s: living together. 1870s: new tensions
Japan becomes an important player as well.
1850s: American commander Matthew Perry sails to a port and trades there (ignores trade restrictions)
this leads to a Japanese civil war
new age of enlightenment, new emperor
1867: Emperor Meiji; wants to avoid China’s faith (Opium Wars)
Modernization of Japan

1894-95: Japan wins war with China (recieves Taiwan/Liaodong)

Europeans are now afraid of the Japanese; Russians, Germans and French force Liaodong back to China (afraid of a growing Japan)
1896: in return Russia recieves concession: railway from Siberia to Vladivostok via Manchuria
! With Japan’s war of conquest against China a process of further partitioning of China by the West is triggered

Chinese Reaction:

1898: Hundered days of reforms
Cixi (aunt of emperor, queen Dowager), most powerful in Chinese court - stops the reforms
1898-1900: Boxer insurrection. Initially against Christian missionaries, afterwards against basically all of the West
1900: stopped by a Western penal expedition
done by a series of nations, whom later argue over future of China:

Russia & Japan want to devide territory further
US, Britian & France defend Chinese integrity (Russia & Japan may become too strong; ‘Great Game’ is still going on)

! end of Chinese partition. it remains independant

Summary:

Economy: infrastructure built by Europeans, trade tarrifs
Culture: spread of Christianity via missionaries, Western school system
Territory: territories annexed, others brought under Western influence, extraterritoriality, etc.

China in early 20th:

Dowager Cixi launches reforms. After defeat of boxer rebellion she makes u-turn, conciedes.
1908: Puyi. new child emperor, final Chinese emperor
1911: revolution
! 1912: dissolusion of the Chinese empire, following this Western interference
1912-16: Officer
China falls apart completely - warlords
2 parties: nationalist (Chiang Kai-shek) & communist (Mao Zedong)
civil war
China contributes to WW1, but is awarded nothing in Vienna conference
1921-22: this leads to further upheaval, and finally the Conference of Washington: no more extraterritoriality, Chinese sovergnity, etc.
1930: China controls its own tarrifs
1943: final Unequal Treaty abolished

[In Chinese culture and shared memory this whole period of partition and colonization by the West is called the ‘Age of Humiliation’ - important for modern Chinese politics]

LESSON 10:

precolonial African states/kingdoms/empires
Primarily about 19th Century
Portugese were first, explored and circumnavigated in 15th century (colonies - Congo, Zanzibar, Mombasa)
some of these colonies lost to Omani Arabs during 16th, 17th Century
Cape Colony - 17th, Dutch, taken over by Brits during Napoleonic era
by early 19th, many Europeans present in West Africa due to slave trade for Americas (French, Brits, Portugese, Dutch…)

!!! NORTH AFRICA: Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt
(Morrocco & Libiya for later)

Algeria: part of Ottoman Empire since 16th Century, but was largely autonomous

1827: Case for war by the French (Fan affair - the Algerian ruler hit the French council with his fan, taken as insult)
1830: they use this as excuse to invage Algiers (actual reason is Charlex X wanting prestiege)
Louis-Philippe continues war after overthrow of Charles X (afraid that if they withdraw Brits would take over)
! 1830s - Algeria becomes French
Algeria becomes a kind of white settler colony. Non-muslims arent granted citizenship, if you renounce faith you can become a citizen. Non-muslims are outnumbered by muslims (1-9mil)

Tunisia:
Semi-ottoman, some freedom & autonomy

Berlin treaty - Bulgarian territory reduced to pre-union with East Rumelia territory (smaller territory than San Stefano), because West fears a strong Russian ally
Variety of land and territory is awarded to the nations participating in the treaty
Most importantly: France recieves Tunisia
1881: Tunisia becomes French protectorate

Egypt:

after Failure of Napoleonic campaign (battle of pyramids, Nile, etc.) → power vacuum
vacuum filled by Muhammad Ali (viceroy of Egypt, first half of 19th)
growing political independence from Ottoman
growing economic DEPENDENCE from Europeans
politically independant, economically dependant
Suez Canal: very important! for India, etc.
! By 1869 the Suez Canal was finished by the French
the Brits were against this (British India is now closer to Europe, more competitors)
Egypt starts taking loans, by 1870s it cannot pay these loans
1875: Egypt’s part in Suez Canal is sold to Britian
1876: Egypt goes bankrupt
France & Britian take over public finances.
! French British condominium
1881: Islamic insurrection crushed by Brits (French busy domestically)
1882 onwards: Britian claims it will return Egypt to the egyptians, but never does so. This is called a ‘veiled’ protectorate. Only in 1914 Egypt is finally admitted to be British
expansion of borders to Sudan
Muhammad Ahmad mobilizes sudanese population (claims to be Mahdi)
Mahdi conquest suceeds in conquering most of Sudan
1884-85: Gordon (british) tries to take over Khartoum, fails, is defeated, dies
Sudan is Mahdi empire, isnt conquered for a while

The Congo:
David Livingstone (key explorer)

Leopold the 2nd:

1879: uses Stanley to explore convo (under banner of science/philantropy)
Savorgnan de Brazza, under French banner, explores North of Congo river, reached upper Congo
Leopold worried by Brazza signing treaties with local people (territory, economy, etc.) this makes some Congo territory French, horrifying for Leopold
French colonies: Gabon, Brazzaville
in reaction Leopold applies same tactics on a much larger scale in Congo river area - treaties with local chiefs via Stanley (works under ‘International Organization of Congo’, AIC)
Germany, alarmed by Brit-Portugal alliance, starts Conference of Berlin
Conference of Berlin:

free trade on congo river (Leopold does not grant this)
general rules of african colonization (informing others)
[notable: its not borders, but approach to border-making thats established]
Congo Free State, Leopold’s control over the Congo

African colonization is a slow process that starts as far back as the 1830s, ramps up by the 1870s and 1880s, and is basically finished by 1914 (eve of WW1)

LESSON 11:

SOUTHERN AFRICA:
South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, etc.

rise of Cape Colony
Cape Town: first agricultural station
Stellenbosch: still looks very European
→ Cape Colony becomes only African white settler colony (maybe Algiers…)
South Africa doesn’t have white majority (not same league as USA, can, Au, NZ, etc.)
early 19th: British conquest
Cape Colony becomes British after Vienna Conference (dutch boers/farmers remain)
1830s: dutch farmers emigrate to the North/East - The Great Trek
Dutch fight with local population
1838: Zulu war (battle of blood river)
1852: Transvaal recognized by Britian
leader of Trek: Andries Pretorius

By 1900s:
Cape Colony / Natal (british), Orange Free State / Transvaal (int. recognized)

1870s: Cape Colony recieves responsible government (like Canada) / 1893: Same with Natal
1877: Transvaal annexed by British (want to create united federation) / Brits want to add Boer republic to their empire
Not accepted lightly by boers
early 1880s: first Boer war (Paul Kruger/Boers win) / Brits also dont put this high on their agenda, concerned with Egypt at the time
Boers/Africanners: Dutch / French, generally multi-national
German colonization starts with individual buisnessmen in Africa
Adolf Franz Luderitz:
1883 purchases a bay from Khoi, turns it into Luderitzland (South-West Africa)
Berlin follows him, Britian didn’t care about that coastline
1884: Berlin offers him political protection, turns Luderitzland into German protectorate

! South East Africa:

Santa Lucia Bay
1860s: Gems discovered near Vaal river (border between Cape Colony & Transvaal) (Kimberly)
1880s: Gold near Witwatersand (in Transvaal / Boer republic)
within years Transvaal transformed. Before - conservative farmer leadership
soon enough: mass immigration; immigrants are offered minimal political rights (seeds of apartheid)
Johanessburg: more dangerous, less historic due to this gold exploitation
[Basically: Transvaal - power in Boer Wars, transformation after discovery of gold]
Brits scared of German-Boer alliance (if it happens brits are overpowered)
Portugese ambition as well (had settlements on Angola/Mozambique) - they dreamed of a coast to coast dream, would also isolate Cape Colony
! Response 1880s: Cape Colony expands into North to drive a wedge
Botswana (1966 after independence) is part of these annexed territories; done by Cecil Rhodes
Cecil Rhodes: buisnessman driven there by diamonds
He moves up North of Botswana towards Zambia/Malawi, makes treaties
Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi become Brit. colonies in second half of 19th; second half of 20th gain independence

[Conclusion: wedge has been driven between Germany/Boers and between the 2 Portugese colonies]

CLASS 12:

East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zanzibar)

deverse region, 3 parts:

inland (2 plateaus around great lakes)
coastline (arab/portugese trade via Indian Ocean)

17th Century: Portugese influence, taken over by arabs in 17th

Zanzibar: island, once trade hub, very influencal on East African coast line

basically most important part of EA
Said bin Sultan (Oman leader), 19th, rules over via Zanzibar
Britian/Germany - economic interest
Britian - strategic interest (from Cape to Cairo, giant colony)
December 1885: Sultan of Zanzibar is afraid of EU invasion, signs treaty
1886: EA inland divided:

British EA (Kenya)
German EA / Deutsch-Ostafrika (Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi)

Division via Kilimanjaro (ignorant of ethnic boundaries)
1886: southern border with Portugal
1890: Equatoria/Uganda treaty (Zanzibar Helgoland treaty):
Uganda - Britian; Germany recieves border with Congo
this stops Cape to Cairo, but Britian persumes it to be provisional, to be changed later (considers Congo Free State as future free territory)
Zanzibar - Britian, Helgoland (small EU island) - Germany. Zanzibar as colony, Helgoland as strategically useful for Germany; Madagascar - France
[note: years AFTER Berlin conference, not during it]

Pacification: process of great violence

Germans (most violent):
1888-1902: 84 military operations! in German EA

British interests:

Region of Nile’s source (irrigation, flood, reclamation) - if you control source of Nile, you control Egyptian economy
Cape to Cairo (again)
France:
Hangovers after Napoleon defeats (Nile & Pyramid battles)
Sudan as second Sedan (Sedan is in France)
From Dakar to Djibouti (West-East) Senegal to Djibouti
Germany/Italy:
regular ambitions as newcomers
Leopold 2nd:
wild, bloodthirsty ambitions

19th:
Britian: Somaliland - control over red sea
France: Djibouti - small, strategic
Italy: Eritrea, Somalia Italiana (desire to unite the two; sucess in 1936)

Italians offer for Ethiopia to come Italian protectorate
Menelik refuses, Italy begins war
1896: Ethiopians defeat Italy
Ethiopia is NEVER colonized, one of the few African states to not be
Marchand (French) leads Congo-Nile expedition to expand French presence in the region
Biggest French expedition in Central Africa, coming with a lot of gifts to win over local chiefs
took 2 years
South of Sudan - 1898

! In the end:

Marchand returns home via Djibouti
Sudan becomes English-Egyptian condominium (no longer Mahdi)
Menelik is alarmed, unites Ethiopia
End to French-Brit rivalry
1904: Entente Cordiale
[Sides in WW1 are decided due to this part of the scramble for Africa]

WEST AFRICA:

South coast of West Africa: Patchwork of ports/settlements

Dutch/Danish leave after abolishment of slavery in America
New ambitions after slavery: palm oil, territorial expansion

Portugese - Port. Guinea
Spain - Span. Guinea
Britian - Gambia, Sierra Leone, Niger delta
France - Senegal (since 17th), Ivory coast
United States - involved in Libera
Germany - Togoland, Kamerut

EU interest in Morrocco
Europeans decide to keep Morocco independant (similar to China in early 20th)
too many interests, too much competition

1st Moroccan Crisis (1905-6)

Entente Cordiale France/Britian
French attempt to create protectorate over Morocco
1906: Algeciras conference: Britian supports France, French/Spanish officers in Morocco (allowed by Brits)
(1907: end of Great Game, France/Britian/Russia)

2nd Moroccan Crissi (1911-12)

revolt against local leader
France interviens
Spain gains territory
Germany intimidates with gunboat Panther
!!! 1912: treaty of Fez (Moroccan sultan abducates, suceeded by his brother), France establishes protectorate over Morocco
! Morocco is the final African region to be colonized (by France)
Germany recieves some land near Congo, which prevents France from uniting all its colonies
Spain gets some South/West territory
Itly gets Libiya
Neither Britian nor France materialize their ambitions YET - but Britian does after WW1, and France unites all its North-Western colonies

LESSON 13:

governor, viceroy (wide turnover, 4-5 years max, similar to modern diplomats; desire for strong ties with colonizer)
indigenious pop. rarely participates in governance
exception: British India (post-great mutiny/1858 & transition to crown rule) - advisories and indirect elections, then municipal councils, then provincial governments, by 1937 (almost WW2, decolonization) - 1/6 Indians could participate in elections (for the time - substantial, even for continental EU)

DIRECT / INDIRECT RULE

Colonial party: not an actual party, merely the circles which support and lobby for colonization (think lawyers, geographers, etc. who support Leopold 2nd)
rulers overseas: CURZON, viceroy in India. A successful colonial career aborad often leads to high position at home. KITCHENER - successful british conquestor, becomes general at home. GALLIENI, French military commander, later successful at home. LYAUTEY, another Frenchman.

Mary Kingsley - female explorer. Gertrude Bell, mother of Iraq (interwar period).

LESSON 14:

reparations is not monetary payment, but rather action, praxis.
continuum with old movements.
European languages are insufficient for representing the issues indigenous people face → use of Pan-African languages; Maangamizi
repreation: repair ofinternation law frameworks, organization, religion, knowledge, etc.

LESSON 15:

Obsession with the exotic nude

Victorian era: oppressed European sexuality
nakedness was understood as openness to sex, etc. Women walked around with their breasts out for cultural reasons.
Polygamy - also understood as ‘primitive’

RELATIONS (centered around the MALE):
relations were homogenized and regulated

many colonizers: bachelors. more dispensible, women could develop trade relations, break from social structures, children may become ‘sickly’, theyre harder to transport, etc.
Legal Dimension: VOC selected only male bachelors for over 200 years. Local women couldn’t travel back to the metropole with their husbands (even with thier kids). In India: for first 3 years of their stay in the colony, men couldn’t marry. Indies Civil Code: women have 0 right over mixed race kids.

Consequences:

local women dependent on European colonizer men
local men now compete with ‘superior’ Europeans
mixed race children (too white and not white enough)
Belgian metis children (kidnapped form the Congo)
The Enlightenment lead to less mission work, even the Jesuits were abolished from 1773-1814
BRITISH INDIA (1750-60 main era of colonial expansion) - missionaries banned in BI until 1830. Brits there are more fascinated with local culture, with Indian religion, language and philosophy. Instead of suppression of local culture, there was a desire to learn about it (IT WAS UP TO BRITS TO LEARN LOCAL LANGUAGE, NOT UP TO INDIANS TO LEARN ENGLISH); indirect rule, no shift in political structures

19TH CENTURY (new paradigm; civilization):

Christianity popular again; Romanticism; new congregations
New missionary activities due to commerce, due to free trade
End of fascination with local cultures; newfound ideas of superiority in Social Darwinism (no longer noble, but underdeveloped)
1810s; British India: English slowly imposed on the elites (language, morality, etc.); English language colleges;
1835: English replaces Persian as official language in BI
Fight against ‘barbaric customs’ (Sati women; Thuggs/Thuggee who kill travelers in the name of Kali)
1813: Missionaries allowed in BI; fighting barbarism, spreading English, spreading weastern Victorian culture, etc.

LESSON 16:

problematic clergy often sent to missions (if accusation → send the priest to another parish)
emergence of new religions (Voodoo - combination of African religions + Christianity); Kimbanguism
many local religions reorganize and modernize
use of the colonizer’s infrastructure (Gandhi using railways)

Industrial Reovlution, colonies become major markets.

desire for foreign products by new European class
1833: Britian abolishes slavery
1848: France
1863: Netherlands
1863: US
1888: Brazil
West Africa was previous trade hub, 2 countries emerge from abolitionism:
Sierra Leone: Founded by Brits as a crown colony, many slaves freed from captured vessels, released into the new colony
Liberia: American slaves moved there, helped by US Colonial Society
Zamindari system (North, 1793): previous Mughal tax collectors given property rights (Brits want loyal landowners who pay them) → misuse and oppression. Revenues dropped.
Raiyatvari system (South, early 19th): peasants pay taxes directly, desire to create closer connection to colonizers → oppression through tax collection
Campaigns against landless people (Thugs for example) → with land you’re easier to control.
French Indochina: Rice, maize, rubber
Dutch East Indies: indigo (dye), cane sugar, coffee
British India: tea, opium, also taxes
German Kamerun, British Kenya: cocoa, banana, tea… etc.
slave plantations no longer have acess to labour
introduction of endentured labour
contracted labour with a very low salary, through shipping ppl to the plantations for about 5 years, they can’t break contract - if they do this is criminal. Their circumstances were VERY poor (similar to the slaves before them)
Chinese or Indian ‘coolies’
Population increase: Java: 3,5 mil in 1800, 40,9 mil. in 1930
Dutch East Indies (1830-70): not super lucrative, financian losses after Java War & Belgian independence
Boosting of exports through CULTURE SYSTEM - peasants cultivate government crops on a 5th of the land, OR, to work for 66 days per year on the government’s land.
large single crop plantations (sugar, coffee, indigo)
VERY lucrative
‘Max Havelaar’ by Eduard Dekker: novel critical of the culture system
enforced by force, misuses, stagnation, etc., native pop. had no acess to capital market (no excess produce)
REFORM of East Indies: liberal period (180-1901): agriculture opened up. However, this doesn’t improve local pop.’s living standards.
Another ciritical novel: ‘Een Eereschuld’ by Conrad Deventer
failed Ethical Policy: education, health, etc. idea of debt to the local pop.’s well being.
Due to WW2 the ethical policy falls through

1 gold rushes in white settler colonies:

US California - 1840s, Colorado 50s-60s
Australia - 1850s; New Zeland - 1870s
Population of Victoria has a great boom (70K to 0,5mil)
mainly Irish and British immigrants: 3/4ths
South Africa: Kimberly’s diamonds in 1860s; Witwatersrand’s gold in 1880s
Gold Coast: mechanised mining (1870s)

2 minerals in the Belgian Congo
Katanga: initially thought to be poor by Brits

copper, cobalt (

3 minerals in British India

originally: trade, taxes, opium, tea
long Indian tradition of artisan skills
use of rail network
Indian plants: Tata steel plant (Jamsetji Tatas) - steel works (WW2: steel producer for British Empire)
Indians develop their own mining

4 pentrol in Dutch Indies and Middle East

initially petrol (pre internal combustion engine) was in Europe and America
later: Sumatra, Persia (right after its division in the Great Game)
Oil companies: Anglo-Persian Oil Company → BP
Sues Canal (1850s, French project): almost halves Europe-South Asia/East Asia travel
about 20k Egyptian labourers died for the canal’s construction
massive burden for Egyptians
Panama Canal: initially French (corrupt), later American
Imperial Airways (1924)→ modern British Airways
KLM: also started to connect Amsterdam and the colonies

LESSON 17:

COMMUNICATION:

post; PENNY POST in the UK (1840) - system to send letter with just a single penny
1854: Penny Post brought to India
TELEGRAPH: 1837/44 - more telegraph in the US
1851: first telegraph in Bengal (useful for calming the Great Mutiny, officers used it to communicate)
1870: first submarine cable in India
1912: radio
Alexander von Humboldt’s voyages in the Americas, named by Darwin as important, father of the Humboldt that Berlin uni is named after.

2 disciplines that boomed during colonization:

GEOGRAPHY: both needed for, and acquired through colonization
ANTHROPOLOGY: knowledge about people
French: more into race mixing
Brits: segregations
Belgians: insane segregation

WW1 AND THE COLONIES:

colonies provided a LOT to the metropoles → especially for France and Britian
oil (British Persia), ores, troops (Brits had Indian, African, etc. soldiers.)
→ 1,3mil. Indian soldiers on Brit side
→ 600k Northern Africans in French army
Skih soldiers in Flanders (first time Belgians meet Indians)
Triple Entente: Russia and Britian (1907)
1914: Ottoman Empire joins Triple Alliance with Germany and Austro-Hungary
now Ottoman Empire is enemies with Britian
Ottoman Empire is weakest link in Triple Alliance
BRITS TRY TO DEFEAT OTTOMAN EMPIRE ON MANY FRONTS:
-Gallipoli and Dardanelles
attempt 1: 1915: Dardenelles invasion by Brits; after almost a year the Brits fail
attempt 2: Mesopotamian campaign (from Iraq: Baghdad conquered), done by Indian troops
attempt 3: Arab Revolt, done through Lawrence of Arabia (T.E. Lawrence); He convinces the Shariff Hussein to start an uprising against the Ottoman Empire. This region includes Mecca. Conquest of Jerusalem and Damascus
3 campaings: Dardenells near Bosphorus, Mesopotamian campaign from Iraq side, Arab revolt in the middle east → this is enough to weaken Ottoman Empire
diplomacy: many promises made by Brit diplomats:
Henry McMahon - Hussein correspondence (convincing the rebellion against Ottoman Empire):

GB is ready to recognize the independence of the Arabs in all the territories
Sykes Pikot-Agreement: Jerusalem/Gaza to be under Brit/French control (at odds with promise 1, by now uprising was in motion)
Balfour declaration: Promising jews a homeland in Palestine (done to gain support by US jews entering WW1, at odds with 1)

these 3 promises lead to Palestine-Israel conflict

Woodrow Wilson’s anti-imperial beliefs: equal treatment of colonizer and colonizee; supra-national institution (league of nation, later UN)

what actually happens is this: defeated nations give up their territories abroad MANDATE SYSTEM (1919): (i.e. Germany, Ottoman Empire) → these are ‘mandates’ for the victor nations, which rule the territories as if theyre colonies on behalf of the previous colonizers, this is done THROUGH THE LEAUGE OF NATIONS
in reality colonization simply continues (with some modifications, such as early reports sent to the Leauge of Nations, etc.)

the Ottoman Empire was carved into pieces. Mandates of the League of Nations
Brits: Iraq, Transjordan (against promise to Shariff Hussein → but they promise him a dynasty), Palestine
French: Syria,
Treaty of Sevres (1920): Turks see crumbling of their entire empire. This is why they rise into a REBELLION (Mustafa Kemal Ataturk); 1923: turks get modern territory

Kuwait is brit protectorate.
Kingdom of Hijaz → turns into Saudi Arabia
Armenia: suffered genocide by Ottoman Empire, lost most of its territory to Turkey
Kurds get NO NATION STATE (fight for statehood over 20th and 21st Century)

LESSON 18:

COLONIAL DECLINE:

general economic decline (reconstruction of Europe, not growing of colonies), Great Depression, More democracy leading to more expenses
loss of image: WW1’s violence leads to cultural pessimism (EU no longer the ‘civilized’); new ideologies: fascism, Nazism (growing from past colonial ideas)
competition between US, Soviet Union, Japan. US - past colony, anti-colonial; USSR - anti-colonial; Japan - desire to build its own imperial empire
shrinking gaps between colonizer and colonized: equality in knowledge, education, more contact with Europeans, better spread of ideas due to colonial infrastructure
technological backwardness shrank
in Moroccoa: Republic of the Rif (Abd el-Krim), uprising that Europe couldn’t defeat for over 3 years.
growing social consciousness about exploitation
anti-imperialist and anti-capitalist literature spreading (Marx, Lenin)

CRACKS IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE:

loss of position in Türkiye, Persia, China
loss of white settler colonies: Ireland (1922), White dominions become independent in 1926 with Balfour declaration
frustrations in Arab world: Egypt, Iraq, Palestine & Jewish migration
Growing problems in India

Egyptian Revolution 1919:
Saad Zaghoul: conference of Versailles he demands independence.

Brits exile him → protests.
Brits eventually recognize INDEPENDENCE; King Faud & then King Farouk become leaders
Brits keep Sudan and Suez
1952 Nasser takes control, 1956 he declares Sudan and Suez independent

1947: Indian independence independence

satyagraha non-violent boycott: holding Brits up to their own contradictions
provoking Brits into using violence, showing the falseness of their words of civilization

JAPAN - building empire (scramble for China in 1890s), later in 1930s and 40s. Manchuria, Nanking in 1937.

1941: Phillipines, Thailand, Burma, Dutch East Indies… Establishes gigantic empire.
Churchil destroys infrastructure in India to avoid Japanese invasion. Leads to Benghal famine.
1944: defeated by British India
1945: defeated by US (Hiroshima & Nagasaki)

CAUSES OF DECOLONIZATION:
technical catch up, confronting colonial ideology, radicalization through education, ideas about equality through more travel, further fueled by WW2 (Europe weakened, new superpowers against colonialism), movements of antifascism and antiracism, UN - against colonization, joined by many previous colonies, observation effect: Asia to Africa, Atlantic Charter (1941) - Churchil agrees to self-determination of colonies and less expansion of spheres of influence

GEOGRAPHY OF DECOLONIZATION:
Interwar and WW2: middle east (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel)
post-ww2: South and Southeast Asia (India, Dutch East Indies, Indonesia, Indochina)
1950s: Northern Africa
1960s: Sub-Saharan Africa

India after WW2:

Muslim-Hundi violence
Brits support Muslims (who believe in 2 Indias: a Hindu and a Muslim one)
Nehru: Hindu leader (secular, cherishes all religions), leader of India
Jinnah: Muslim leader (dies of cancer soon after independence), leader of Pakistan
Churchil lost elections
Attlee, labour PM, is elected: tolerant of Indian independence
1947: Independence a year earlier than Attlee’s promise.
India, West and East Pakistan (East becomes Bangladesh later)
ethnic cleansing in Punjab and Bengal; 10-15 million refugees, 1m murders
Hindus in Pakistan, Muslims in India move due to further expanding violence.
Hindu raja of Kashmir wants it to not take a side in the Hindu/Muslim conflict. he wants it to be a kind of Asian Switzerland.
1947: Pakistan invasion of Kashmir; 1949: India offers raja help only if he takes the side of India
this conflict remains ongoing (partially): 40s, 50s, 60s, 70s and even 1999 - Kashmir problem still has not been solved.
Pakistan and India BOTH claim all of Kashmir (India because the maharaja signed it to them, Pakistan because it is majority muslim)

LESSON 19:

Other British Colonies in South Asia:

Sri Lanka: 1948
Myanmar: 1948 (democracy, then military regime)
Malaysia remains British: becomes independent in 1957 (Malayan emergency, Independence wars)
1965: Singapore

Dutch East Indies: anti-Dutch sentiment, shared by Dutch communists

1945: Sukarno asserts independence
Dutch military action: KNIL 100k soldiers, 95k soldiers went to Dutch East Indies to destroy the freedom fighters; 150k casualties
did not even call it a war - a ‘dutch military action’.
2022: big research project to figure out the actions of the Dutch
1949: Dutch recognize independence, finally.
Sukarno, Suharto - first presidents
East Timor (north of Australia) - Portugese
1974: withdraw of Portugal
1975: Indonesia invasion
2002: East Timor is finally independent

FRENCH Indochina: 1945, Ho Chi Minh declares independence instantly after WW2

1946-54: French invasion (failure), Laos and Cambodia are also independent amidst this conflict
1954: North Vietnam is communist, South Vietnam is a republic
1965-73: Vietnam war, US supports South Vietnam against the communist North Vietnam
1976: united Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Its still a soviet republic (but not really, like China)
Algeria in Northern Africa: colonized since 1830, but always resistant to French colonization.
1945: uprising against French suppression
War (1954-62): 500k French troops vs guierrila fighters.
Algeria wasn’t considered a colony, this was seen as a civil war
1956: Nasser nationalized Suez canal. Britian, France & Israel attack Egypt.
Washington is against this operation, they oppose this reaction (would be seen as a colonial reaction in a time of 1. decolonization and 2. the USSR, looking for excuses to oppose the west on the basis of their imperialism and 3. it distracted from the Hungarian crisis, which painted the USSR in a bad light)
Significance: anarchronistic colonial violence, this triggers African decolonization, people grow to hate the imperial powers even more
French colonial disengagement:
Morocco and Tunesia gain independence in 1956 (too many fronts for France to fight on)
14 Sub-Saharan colonies: 1960, they all vote to be independent
1962: Algeria is finally independent

THE ALGERIAN FRONT STRETCHES FRANCE SO THIN, THAT THEY BASICALLY LET ALL OTHER COLONIES SLIP OUT OF THEIR HANDS

Asian British hesitancy: Malaya, Borneo, Singapore, Yemen, Cyprus, Brunei, Hong Kong
Mau Mau uprising 1950s: anti-colonial rebellion. Kenya had a lot of brits, who had the best land. Segragation, hangings, confiscations, thousands of executions, etc.

nationalization, loans, dependency theory (export of raw materials, West is still dependent on the rest of the world), neoliberalism: countries with debts to the West need to open up themselves to Western market involvements

DEVELOPMENT AID:

successor to what colonization was promoted to be about (missionaries before)
NGOs were before only for Europe → then expanded to the whole world
NGOs replaced missionaries
development aid: since 1970s, less catholic, more engaged with indigineous problems
solidarity movements: Vietnam, Chile, Nicaragua, Palestine
1980s: humanitarian aid, no longer ‘political’, more value-free

MIGRATION:

students allowed to travel before and some people…
people allowed to travel more freely
migration waves in 1950s (after British Nationality Act of 1948)
Suriname (Indonesia): 1/3rd of population goes to Netherlands
Portugal: 150k immigrants
Less so in Belgium

?? notes

Explorer

HISTORY OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION

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