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1. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO (354–430)

1.1 Intellectual and Biographical Context

Augustine’s intellectual development is often divided into three phases:

  1. Early rhetorician (classical education, Cicero, skepticism of New Academy)

  2. Manichaean adherent (dualism: good vs evil as cosmic principles)

  3. Neo-Platonist → Christian bishop (conversion c. 386)

He is considered the author of the first philosophical autobiography in the West (Confessions).

1.2 Philosophical Trajectory

Augustine moves through:
Manichaeism → Skeptical Academy → Neoplatonism → Christianity

Key intellectual function of this trajectory:

  • Rejects dualistic metaphysics (Manichaeism)

  • Rejects epistemic skepticism (Academy)

  • Adopts Neoplatonic hierarchy but reinterprets it theologically

1.3 Free Will and Evil

Core Problem

If God is omnipotent and good, how does evil exist?

Augustine’s Solution

  • Evil has no positive ontological status

  • Evil is privation (privatio boni): lack of good, not a substance

Therefore:

  • God does not create evil

  • Evil is a corruption of good will

Efficient cause of evil

  • There is no efficient cause of evil as such

  • Evil arises from misdirected will (liberum arbitrium)

Moral psychology

  • Passions are not intrinsically evil

  • Moral value depends on object and orientation of desire

  • Contrast with Stoicism: Augustine does not endorse apatheia

Later doctrine (mature Augustine)

  • Strong doctrine of grace: fallen human will cannot avoid sin without divine assistance

1.4 Ontology and Hierarchy of Being

Augustine adopts a Neoplatonic hierarchy, modified:

God (Being itself; ipsum esse)
→ Angels
→ Humans
→ Animals
→ Plants
→ Inanimate beings

Key difference from Neoplatonism:

  • Plotinus: “the One” beyond being

  • Augustine: God is highest being, identical with truth and goodness

1.5 Divine Predication

  • All divine attributes are identical with divine essence

  • God is not “good” by participation in goodness

  • God is goodness itself (simplicity doctrine)

1.6 Epistemology: Illumination Theory

Core Thesis

Knowledge requires:

  1. Truth of proposition

  2. Certainty of recognition

But human cognition cannot self-ground truth.

Solution: Divine Illumination

  • Christ is the “inner teacher”

  • Truth is known through intellectual illumination by God

  • External language only directs attention

Comparison:

  • Plato (Meno): recollection

  • Augustine: illumination (divine rather than preexistent knowledge)

1.7 Theory of Signs (De Doctrina Christiana)

Definition

A sign is something that causes thought of something beyond itself.

Types of signs:

  1. Natural signs (smoke → fire)

  2. Intentional signs:

    • Natural-intentional

    • Conventional (language)

Semiotics:

Triadic structure:

  • Sign (form)

  • Signification (mental act)

  • Signified object (referent)

No strict one-to-one correspondence between words and things.

1.8 Political Philosophy: City of God

Fundamental distinction:

Two cities defined by love:

City of God → amor Dei
City of Man → amor sui

Key claims:

  • No earthly state can realize perfect justice

  • Political order is necessary but not salvific

  • True commonwealth requires orientation to ultimate good (God)

Radical implication:

Break from classical political realism (Aristotle, Cicero)

2. BOETHIUS (c. 480–524)

2.1 Intellectual Role

Boethius is the main transmitter of Greek philosophy to Latin medieval Europe:

  • Translated Aristotle’s logical works

  • Developed theological logic

  • Author of Consolation of Philosophy

2.2 Philosophy of God

  • God = pure form, absolute simplicity

  • No composition (form/matter distinction does not apply)

  • Source of all goodness

2.3 Epistemology and Innate Knowledge

  • Influenced by Platonic reminiscence

  • Knowledge is not abstraction only

  • Reason accesses eternal truths within the soul

2.4 Logic and Liberal Arts

Defines Quadrivium:
Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Music

Logic:

  • Instrument of philosophy, like a “hand” (both tool and part)

2.5 Divine Foreknowledge Problem

Problem

If God knows future contingents → they seem necessary → free will disappears.

Boethius’ solution:

  1. Modes of cognition principle:
    Knowledge depends on knower’s mode

  2. Eternity:
    God is outside time (simultaneous totality of life)

  3. Distinction:

  • Simple necessity (logical necessity)

  • Conditional necessity (if known, then known)

Conclusion:

  • God sees all in eternal present

  • Human freedom preserved

3. PETER ABELARD (1079–1142)

3.1 Intellectual Position

  • Early conceptualist / nominalist tendencies

  • Rationalist but not anti-theological

  • Focus on individual moral responsibility

3.2 Universal Problem

Universals are:

  • Not real things

  • Mental constructs (confused images)

Types of mental representation:

  • General/confused (universal terms)

  • Particular/distinct (individuals)

3.3 Ethics of Intention

Central thesis:

Morality depends on intention, not external act.

  • Good act = good intention

  • Evil act = bad intention

Key distinction:

  • External action ≠ moral evaluation

Moral structure:

Sin occurs in:

  1. Suggestion

  2. Pleasure

  3. Consent (decisive stage)

Only consent constitutes sin.

Implication:

  • Moral subjectivity increased

  • Divine judgment concerns intention, not external outcome

4. AL-FARABI

4.1 Political Philosophy

Humans are naturally social due to dependency.

Hierarchy of societies:

  • Universal society

  • Nation

  • City (most perfect)

4.2 Perfect City

Analogy:

  • City = organism

  • Ruler = first cause

Goal:

  • Felicity (happiness through intellectual perfection)

4.3 Philosopher-King

Ruler must have:

  • Intellectual perfection

  • Moral virtues

  • Practical wisdom

  • Prophetic capacity (in rare cases)

Rare ideal: philosopher-prophet-ruler

4.4 Types of Cities

  • Excellent city (ideal)

  • Ignorant city (no concept of true happiness)

  • Wicked city (knows truth but acts wrongly)

  • Errant city (misled doctrine)

5. THOMAS AQUINAS (1225–1274)

5.1 Metaphysics

Core distinction:

  • Act vs potency

Motion:

  • Transition from potency → act

  • Requires actual cause

5.2 Five Ways (central exam topic)

  1. Motion → unmoved mover

  2. Efficient causality → first cause

  3. Contingency → necessary being

  4. Degrees of perfection → maximal being

  5. Teleology → intelligent designer

Conclusion: God = pure act (actus purus)

5.3 Evil

  • Evil = privation of good

  • No positive ontological status

  • All being as being is good

6. PETER OLIVI

6.1 Philosophy of Mind and Language

  • Rejects strict Aristotelian ontology of categories

  • Meaning follows cognition, not being

6.2 Key distinctions

  • rationes reales: real but non-substantial aspects

  • rationes secundum dici: purely conceptual distinctions

6.3 Voluntarism

  • Strong emphasis on free will

  • Human distinctiveness grounded in volition

7. MARSILIUS OF PADUA

7.1 Political Theory

Primary goal: peace (tranquillitas)

Opposes:

  • Papal political supremacy (anti-papalism)

7.2 State Theory

State defined as:

  • Self-sufficient political community aimed at living well

Aristotelian basis:

  • Polis exists for living well, not mere survival

7.3 Law and Authority

  • Law originates from people (legislative authority of citizens)

  • Majority can recognize good law even if not expert producers

Key democratic argument:

  • Recognition capacity ≠ production capacity

8. JOHN DUNS SCOTUS

8.1 Universals Problem

Question: How can a universal be one and many?

Solution:

  • “Less-than-numerical unity”

8.2 Formal distinction

  • Real distinctions without numerical separation

  • Allows shared nature (humanity) across individuals

8.3 Haecceity

Principle of individuation:

  • “thisness” (haecceitas)

  • Makes Socrates this individual Socrates

Structure:

  • Common nature (humanity)

  • Individuating principle (haecceity)

9. CHRISTINE DE PIZAN

9.1 Core Question

Why do authoritative male thinkers denigrate women?

9.2 Response (Reason, Justice, Rectitude)

Causes of misogyny:

  • Misinterpretation of partial cases

  • Male resentment (aging, impotence)

  • Envy

9.3 Positive Anthropology

  • Women are created in God’s image

  • Capable of virtue and wisdom

10. SUMMARY THEMES (EXAM ESSENTIALS)

10.1 Evil

  • Augustine: privation theory

  • Aquinas: privation extended metaphysically

10.2 Knowledge

  • Augustine: illumination

  • Boethius: eternal cognition

  • Abelard: conceptualism

10.3 Universals

  • Abelard: conceptualism

  • Scotus: formal realism (haecceity)

  • Olivi: semi-nominalist functionalism

10.4 Politics

  • Augustine: two cities (theological politics)

  • Farabi: philosopher-king ideal

  • Marsilius: popular sovereignty

10.5 Free Will

  • Augustine: will weakened by sin

  • Boethius: preserved via eternity distinction

  • Olivi: strong voluntarism

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