Introduction
Philosophy was not born in Greece, but in the Greek-speaking world, around the 6th century B.C. Socrates, often seen as a central figure, was poisoned, but philosophical thought began earlier, within Greek colonies.
A key difference between mainland Greece and its colonies was the need for independence. Many decisions in mainland Greece, such as those in Athens, required consulting oracles. In contrast, for those in distant colonies like Syracuse or Elea, consulting an oracle could take several months, and there was a risk of not returning. This led to a greater sense of autonomy in the colonies, where many great thinkers were born outside mainland Greece.
Parmenides
Parmenides, an important philosopher, wrote a significant poem about nature. Unfortunately, much of this poem is lost. The remaining fragments are preserved because other philosophers referenced them in their own works.
The required reading for next week is “Fragments” by Parmenides, available on Toledo.
Parmenides’ Poem
The poem begins with Parmenides entering a chariot in the city of Elea, heading towards a gate. Upon arrival, a goddess speaks to him, revealing the principles of all things. This scene sets the poem apart from earlier philosophical texts because it seeks to rationalize everything, moving beyond traditional religious explanations involving gods.
The goddess explains that there are two paths of understanding:
- The path of day – the path of philosophy, light, and rational thought.
- The path of night – the path where coherence is ignored, focusing on practical matters.
A philosopher must understand both ways of thinking to fully grasp reality. Parmenides emphasizes that to be, to think, and to speak are all one. You cannot speak of something you cannot think of, and it is impossible to think of something that does not exist. Therefore, there is an identity between being, thinking, and expressing.
Key Philosophical Concepts
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Arche: Philosophers must contemplate the principle or origin of all things. This requires an understanding of the notion of “everything” and how all things are derived from a principle.
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Negation: Negation allows us to talk about things that are not present or not fully understood. By negating something, you grasp the limits of what exists. The limit of “everything” is “to be.” Negation helps us comprehend “everything” by defining its opposite, non-being. Absolute nothingness, or nihil negativum, is the limit of human thought—it cannot be fully conceptualized.
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Unchangeability: Parmenides argues that if something exists, it cannot cease to exist. Thus, change is impossible because something cannot simply “stop being.” This leads to the conclusion that being is eternal and unchangeable, and temporal qualifications (before, after, now) do not apply to it.
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Logos: Parmenides connects logos (the rule of speech) with reality. To him, logos is not only a linguistic principle but also a principle of existence. A philosopher must understand both ways of being: the way of day (philosophy) and the way of night (the non-philosophical).
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Metaphor of the Chariot: In Parmenides’ poem, a chariot, pulled by mares and watched by maidens, represents his journey to enlightenment. This journey takes him along a walkway, lined with trees named after a goddess of the sun, further emphasizing the connection between nature, myth, and philosophical thought.
Parmenides’ Influence
Parmenides’ influence extended to philosophers like Zeno and Melissos, who further developed his ideas. Zeno is famous for his paradoxes, which aimed to demonstrate the reality of Parmenides’ philosophy. Melissos took Parmenides’ ideas even further, attempting to prove them in an even more radical manner.
Parmenides’ school, often referred to as the Eleatics, is not a formal institution like Plato’s Academy. Instead, it refers to a group of philosophers, including Xenophanes, Zeno, and Melissos, who shared similar views.
Examination and Reading Materials
- Examination: The final assessment will be an oral exam.
- Required Reading: We will be reading original texts, not excerpts from anthologies. Each text will be accompanied by a short introduction (around two pages). The readings will include works by philosophers from Kant through Schelling.
- Weekly Reading Schedule: We aim to read approximately one book per week, selected for their manageable length.
Additional Information
- Professor’s Office Hours: HIW 02.02, Tuesdays, 09:00-13:00.
- Marianne Wolf: A literary scholar and neuroscientist, she explores the neuroscience of reading, particularly in her book Proust and the Squid. She emphasizes the importance of “deep reading,” which requires time to sink into and leads to more complex memory embedding.
Final Thought
Philosophy is not married to any particular literary genre. It can be expressed through dialogues, letters, poems, treatises, or other forms, depending on the historical period and rhetorical rules. In Parmenides’ case, the philosophical journey is framed as a poetic revelation, blending mythology and rational inquiry.
“The philosopher is ‘philomythos’, one who cares for stories.”